The knee is a joint that has three compartments. The thighbone (femur) meets the large shinbone (tibia) forming the main knee joint. This joint has an inner (medial) and an outer (lateral) compartment. The kneecap (patella) joins the femur to form a third compartment, called the patellofemoral joint.
The knee joint is surrounded by a joint capsule with ligaments strapping the inside and outside of the joint (collateral ligaments) as well as crossing within the joint (cruciate ligaments). These ligaments provide stability and strength to the knee joint.
The meniscus is a thickened cartilage pad between the two joints formed by the femur and tibia. The meniscus acts as a smooth surface for motion and absorbs the load of the body above the knee when standing. The knee joint is surrounded by fluid-filled sacs called bursae, which serve as gliding surfaces that reduce friction of the tendons. Below the kneecap, there is a large tendon (patellar tendon) which attaches to the front of the tibia bone.
There are large blood vessels passing through the area behind the knee (referred to as the popliteal space). The large muscles of the thigh move the knee. In the front of the thigh, the quadriceps muscles extend the knee joint. In the back of the thigh, the hamstring muscles flex the knee. The knee also rotates slightly under guidance of specific muscles of the thigh.
Injury can affect any of the ligaments, bursae, or tendons surrounding the knee joint. Injury can also affect the ligaments, cartilage, menisci (plural for meniscus), and bones forming the joint. The complexity of the design of the knee joint and the fact that it is an active weight-bearing joint are factors in making the knee one of the most commonly injured joints.
Other causes of knee pain could be due to diseases or conditions that involve the knee joint, the soft tissues and bones surrounding the knee, or the nerves that supply sensation to the knee area. In fact, most of the time, the knee joint is affected by rheumatic diseases and immune diseases that affect various tissues of the body.
Arthritis is disease of a joint that may invlove pain, stiffness, swelling and/ or inflammation within the joint. The causes of knee joint arthritis range from degenerative types of arthritis such as osteoarthritis, to inflammatory types of arthritis such as rheumatoid arthritis or gout. Treatment for the condition depends on the specific type of arthritis encountered.
Osteoarthitis
This is most often due to wear-and-tear of the knee joint, and is age and activity related. It can also be due to previous injuries of the knee as well as pre-existing malformations. Osteoarthritis most often affects individuals over the age of 50, but with increasing active lifestyles, even younger people can be affected. In the early stages, the condition can be treated by activity modification, medications and other non-surgical means. However in more severe cases, surgery may offer the best chance of long-lasting results, and this may range from simple procedures such as arthroscopy, to more complex operations such as realignment surgeries and knee replacement.
Rheumatoid and other inflammatory arthritis
This group of diseases include rheumatoid, sero-negative arthritis, systemic lupus erthematosus (SLE), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), psoriatic arthritis and other rare forms of arthritis. They are often autoimmune in nature, and the disease process can often be suppressed by medications, but not usually cured. If joints become irreversibly damaged by the disease, joint replacement is often a good option that can yield excellent results.
Gout and other crystal diseases
These conditions are caused by the presence of various types of crystals within joints. Uric acid crystals give rise to gout, while calcium pyrophosphate crystals cause pseudogout. The crystals are responsible for pain, swelling and inflammation of joints, including the knee, ankle and foot joints. Medications can often control the acute attacks, and dietary measures may help. In severely affected knee joints, total knee replacement can often give long-lasting relief.
Trauma can result in injuries to the ligaments situated on the inner (medial collateral ligament) or outer (lateral collateral ligament) portions of the knee, as well as within the knee itself (cruciate ligaments). Immediate pain is a common manifestation of such injuries, although pinpointing the exact location can sometimes be challenging.
Usually, a collateral ligament injury is felt on the inner or outer portions of the knee. A collateral ligament injury is often associated with local tenderness over the area of the ligament involved.
A cruciate ligament injury is felt deep within the knee. It is sometimes noticed with a "popping" sensation with the initial trauma. The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is one of the most commonly injured ligaments of the knee, especially in sports such as basketball and football. The ACL stabilises the knee for cutting, twisting and jumping and pivoting activity. The anterior cruciate ligament is in the centre of the knee joint. When you tear an ACL, you will often feel or hear a pop, feel the knee shift out of place and develop significant swelling in just a few hours.
Ligament injuries to the knee are typically painful at rest, accompanied by swelling and warmth. Pain intensifies when bending the knee, putting weight on it, or walking. The severity can range from mild (minor stretching or tearing of ligament fibres, such as a low-grade sprain) to severe (complete tear of ligament fibres). In some cases, a single traumatic event may result in injuries to multiple areas.
Ligament injuries are initially treated with ice packs and immobilisation, with rest and elevation. We generally recommend that patients avoid bearing weight on the injured joint, and use crutches for walking, if necessary. Some patients are placed in splints or braces to immobilise the joint to reduce the pain and promote healing. Arthroscopic or open surgery may be necessary to repair severe injuries.
Surgical repair of ligaments may involve suturing alone, grafting, and synthetic graft repair. These procedures can be done by either open knee surgery or arthroscopic surgery. The type of surgery depends on the level of damage to the ligaments and the activity expectations of the patient. Many repairs can now be done arthroscopically. However, certain severe injuries will require an open surgical repair. Reconstruction procedures for cruciate ligaments are increasingly successful with current surgical techniques.
Watch this 3D animation video to learn about what happens during an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction surgery:
Watch the following three videos to learn about the rehabilitation exercises to do after an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction surgery:
The meniscal tear can be diagnosed in one of three ways:
Watch this video to learn more about meniscus tear:
Watch this video to learn about post-meniscus tear surgery care advice:
Tendinitis, characterised by inflammation of the tendon, is often triggered by strain events, such as jumping, earning it the moniker "jumper's knee" in the case of patellar tendinitis.
In individuals with tendinitis, localized pain and tenderness at the affected tendon are common symptoms. Treatment typically involves a combination of ice packs, immobilization using a knee brace as necessary, rest and anti-inflammatory medications.
Exercise programmes can help the tissues in and around the affected tendon. Steroid injections, which can be given for tendinitis elsewhere, are generally avoided in patellar tendinitis as there are reports of risk of tendon rupture as a result of corticosteroids in this area. Surgery may be required for severe cases of tendonitis.
A rupture of the tendon below or above the kneecap may occur. When this happens, there may be bleeding within the knee joint and extreme pain with any knee movement. Surgical repair of the ruptured tendon is often necessary.
This is due to the presence of an extra synovial fold or membrane (plica) inside the knee joint, usually on the medical side or inner aspect of the knee. When the plica causes friction or pressure on the joint surface, tenderness and pain on movement can result. This condition can effectively be treated by arthroscopy (keyhole surgery).
This refers to the softening of the cartilage under the kneecap (patella). It is a common cause of deep knee pain and stiffness in younger women and can be associated with pain and stiffness after prolonged sitting and climbing stairs or hills. Treatment with anti-inflammatory medications, ice packs and rest can provide short-term relief of the condition. The long term cure is to strengthen the quadriceps muscles of the front of the thigh through exercises.
Bursitis of the knee commonly occurs on the inside of the knee (anserine bursitis) and the front of the kneecap (patellar bursitis, or "housemaid's knee"). Bursitis is generally treated with ice packs, immobilisation, and anti-inflammatory medications such as ibuprofen (Brufen) or aspirin and may require local injections of corticosteroids (cortisone medication) as well as exercise therapy to develop the musculature of the front of the thigh.
Treatment Options
The surgical treatment options vary according to the different conditions. Common knee surgeries include:
Diagnostic and therapeutic arthroscopies
This procedure, typically conducted as a day surgery, involves the use of a small telescope inserted into the knee. Arthroscopy is commonly employed for patients with meniscal and cruciate ligament injuries. Patients can return home either on the same day or the following day. Younger patients with isolated cartilage injuries may be offered a two-stage articular cartilage transplantation.
Open surgeries
These surgeries address various knee issues, including proximal and distal realignment procedures for isolated patellofemoral problems. Techniques involve lateral retinacular release of the patella and tibial tubercle elevation and medialization to enhance patellar tracking.
High tibial osteotomies which involve cutting bone, are frequently performed procedures. They include either a medial opening wedge or lateral closing wedge osteotomy of the proximal tibia. The aim is to redirect weight-bearing forces from the medial compartment of the knee to the lateral side, alleviating pain and correcting varus deformities. Bilateral procedures can be done in a single session or in a staged manner.
Total knee replacement
This procedure is commonly performed for severe tricompartmental arthritis. It entails resurfacing the damaged articular lining of the knee, mainly the distal femur and proximal tibia, with metal prostheses. A tibial articular liner/insert made of high-density polyethylene is inserted, and the patellar articular surface may also be replaced with a patellar button, depending on the surgeon's findings.
The prosthesis is usually fixed with bone cement. If only one compartment is involved, unicompartmental knee replacements are offered. The risks of this elective surgery is weighed against the benefits of this procedure as it improves the quality of life of most patients and gives them significant relief from pain.
The commonly cited risks are of that related to anaesthesia, bleeding, infection, deep venous thrombosis in the veins of the lower limbs, fracture, loosening of the prosthesis- aseptic or septic.
Patients are usually assessed preoperatively by anaesthetists and if deemed fit, they can arrive on the day of surgery. Postoperatively, a drain is usually placed in the knee, removed on postoperative day 1 or 2, and followed by the patient sitting up, getting out of bed, and walking with full weight-bearing on the operated limb using a walking frame. Typically, patients can return home by the 4th or 5th postoperative day.
